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CHAPTER 3. |
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Supply Potential and Uses of Biofuel/Feedstock |
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The table below shows typical liquid biofuels derived from biomass..
Table3.1 Types, feedstock materials and uses of biofuel
| Type of biofuels |
Feedstock |
Fuel uses |
| Bio-ethanol |
Energy crops, Food waste,
Agricultural residue,
Wood-based biomass |
Gasoline substitute,
gasoline additive,
and boiler fuel, etc. |
ETBE
(Ethyl Tertiary Butyl Ether) |
Isobutene (a byproduct of petroleum refining process) and ethanol |
Gasoline additives |
| Biodiesel fuel (BDF・FAME) |
Food waste(used oil ), Energy crops |
Diesel fuel substitute, diesel fuel additive, and boiler fuel |
| Black liquor |
Pulping-process residue |
Pulp mill fuel |
| SVO (Straight Vegetable Oil) |
Food waste(used oil ),
Energy crops |
Diesel fuel substitute,
feedstock for biodiesel fuel, etc. |
| BTL (Biomass-to-liquid) |
Wood-based biomass,
Agricultural residue |
Diesel fuel substitute,
diesel fuel additive,
boiler fuel, etc. |
| Second Generation Biodiesel Fuel
(Bio Hydrofined Diesel) |
Energy crops,
Food waste(used oil ) |
Diesel fuel substitute,
diesel fuel additive |
| Biomethanol |
Energy crops, Food waste,
Agricultural residue,
Wood-based biomass |
Chemical feedstock, various fuels,
fuel cells, and methyl-esterifying agent for biodiesel fuel |
| Biobutanol |
Energy crops, Food waste,
Agricultural residue, Wood-based biomass |
Gasoline substitute, gasoline additive,
diesel fuel substitute and biodiesel fuel additive |
Among these fuel types, ETBE, biodiesel fuel, and black liquor are already commercialized in Japan. |
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3.1 Biofuel Feedstock
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Data on potential biomass supply and on biomass utilization rate in Japan have been publicized by the Biomass-Nippon Strategy Promotion Meeting
* The above biomass data are latest as of December 2006 |
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Figure 3.1 Potential biomass supply and utilization ratio (2006) |
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Table3.2 Information sources and data derivation basis for potential biomass supply and use rate of individual biomass types
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| Biomass |
Government
authority |
Potential biomass supply |
Utilization rate |
| Livestock waste |
MAFF |
From MAFF "2006 Livestock statistics"
Number of livestock in Japan X waste material per animal |
Utilization rate was calculated from the December 2004 survey result on Japanese farmers. |
| Sewage sludge |
MLIT |
Figures are the sums of individual sewage plant data from "Sewage Statistics" by Japan Sewage Works Association (a compiled report based on the survey results such as "Survey on sewage" conducted by MLIT, City and Regional Development Bureau, Sewerage and Water Management Department)
|
| Black liquor |
METI |
From "Annual Report of current survey of energy consumption" by METI.
Oven dry weight was recalculated to wet weight. (Figures were multiplied by 5 using 80% moisture content) |
There are 18 wood pulp manufactures and 39 factories. |
| Paper waste |
MOE |
Figures are the sums of paper waste data for municipal waste (“Waste management in Japan 2004”) and for industrial waste (2004 report on industrial waste) reported by MOE. |
From “2005 survey reports on waste dispersal control and on waste materials recycling” by MOE. |
| Food waste |
MAFF |
MOE "Annual Report on the Environment and the Sound Material-Cycle Society in Japan 2005" |
| Sawmill residue |
MAFF/
Forestry Agency |
Statistical data on agriculture, forestry and fishery
"Outline of the 2005 survey on wood-based biomass use "
Converted into tons using 0.4 specific gravity |
Construction
wood waste |
MLIT |
From “Breakdown of construction waste generation” in “2005 Survey on construction by-products" conducted by MLIT. |
From “Itemized waste material recycling” in “2005 Survey on construction by-products" conducted by MLIT. |
Agricultural
residue |
MAFF |
From hearings conducted with each prefecture.
Information on farm products is not publicized. |
| Forestry residue |
Forestry Agency |
From "Statistical handbook of forest and forestry" and "Lumber supply and demand chart" on the Forestry Agency web site.
Volumes of branches/leaves and logs damaged by pine bark beetles were added to the difference between standing tree stem volume and produced log volume. (8,600,000m3)
→Converted into tons using 0.4 specific gravity |
From data of " Lumber supply and demand chart " (143,000m3)
→Converted into tons using 0.4 specific gravity |
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METI: Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry
MAFF: Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
MLIT: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and TourismM
MOE: Ministry of the Environment
*Reference: Data for potential biomass supply in Japan is also publicized at the web sites below. |
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Table3.3 Web sites related to potential biomass supply in Japan |
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Figure 3.2 Links between various types of biomass and biofuels |
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3.1.1 Food waste |
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(1) Potential supply
The estimated quantity of food waste generated annually in Japan is approximately 21.5 million tons, and, among these, approximately 4.7 million tons are used as compost or livestock feed. Since Law concerning the Promotion of the Food Resource Recycling became effective on 2001, the amount of food waste recycled as compost or livestock feed increased from approximately 10% to 20%. However, it is estimated that the rest of the food waste, approximately 16.8 million tons, are still sent to incineration or landfills. (Table 3.4) |
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Table3.4 Food waste generation and waste management types (fiscal year 2002) 1 |
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(unit: 10,000 tons)
| |
Amount generated |
Amount disposed |
| Incinerationand landfill |
Amount recycled |
| Compost |
Fodder |
Others |
Total |
| Municipal waste |
1,706 |
1,560 |
― |
― |
― |
146 |
| |
Householdwaste |
1,189 |
1,168 |
― |
― |
― |
21 |
| Commercialwaste |
517 |
392 |
43 |
31 |
52 |
125 |
| Industrial waste |
448 |
121 |
124 |
134 |
69 |
327 |
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| Total |
2,154 |
1,681 |
― |
― |
― |
473 |
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Table 3.5 below indicates the amount of used cooking oil generated in Japan. According to an estimate, the amount of used cooking oil generated annually is approximately 410,000 to 550,000 tons, equivalent to 450,000 to 600,000 kL in volume (specific gravity: approximately 0.92). Among these, most part of the used cooking oil generated by restaurant and food industries has already been recycled as animal feed or soap material, hence the used cooking oil produced by households (110,000 to 250,000 tons) is presumed to be the primary source for the biodiesel feedstock. Under the existing circumstances, over 90 % of the household used cooking is discarded as household waste or placed into the kitchen drains. |
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1 Ministry of the Environment , Annual Report on the Environment and the Sound Material-Cycle Society in Japan , 2005 |
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Table3.5 Estimated amount of waste food oil generated in Japan (fiscal year 2003) 2 |
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| Source ofwaste food oil |
Amount supplied(1000tons/year) |
Annual quantity per person
(g/person, year) |
Waste food oil generation(1000tons/year) |
| Amount supplied |
Waste food oil generation |
| Household |
619.9 |
4,857 |
950-1,943 |
114-248 |
| Restaurant industries |
671.5 |
5,262 |
1,579 |
201 |
| Food industries |
767.8 |
6,017 |
602 |
778 |
| Modified fat |
424.9 |
3,330 |
166 |
21 |
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| Total |
2,484.20 |
19,466 |
3,297-4,290 |
413-547 |
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(2) Uses
Under a contract with New Energy and Industrial Development Organization (NEDO), Nippon Steel Corporation is conducting a demonstration project to produce bio-ethanol from food wastes. Also in a demonstrational bio-ethanol production experiment performed by Bio-ethanol Japan Kansai Corporation, food wastes such as tofu residue (okara) are recycled as a part of bio-ethanol feedstock.
In addition, Kumamoto City is conducting a research on the potential for commercialization of distinguished collection system for municipal food waste, conversion into ethanol, and waste recycling, while, in Shizuoka City, Shizuoka Yuka Kougyo Co., Ltd. is constructing a small bio-ethanol plant by the end of February 2008 and is planning to produce their target quantity of 4,800 liter/year from unprocessed tofu residues and potato peels.
Moreover, the number of municipalities, companies, and other organizations producing biodiesel fuel from recycled waste food oil has increased to several hundreds in Japan. |
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2 Jun Ikegami Biodiesel Handbook , 2006 |
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3.1.2 Agricultural residues |
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(1) Potential supply
The amount of agricultural residues produced annually (such as rice straw, wheat straw, and rice husk) is approximately 14 million tons. Among them, about 30% are used as compost, animal feed, or animal bedding, but the rest (about 70%) are inefficiently utilized such as plow under. |
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For rice straw alone, 8.71 million tons was produced during the fiscal year 2003, and approximately 20% was efficiently used as animal feed or other but the rest (about 80%) was plowed under or incinerated. (Figure 3.3) |
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Figure 3.3 Amount of domestic rice straw production and its uses (2003 fall production) 3 |
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(2) Uses |
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Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding Co. Ltd., in cooperation with Okayama Prefectural Government, has been conducting, since 2007, a demonstration project to produce bio-ethanol from rice husks, rice straw, sweet corn stover, and soft cellulosic feedstock crops such as energy crops (sorghum), crops which are expected to be produced in uncultivated farmlands for efficient land use.
In addition, in Hokkaido’s Kamikawa and Sorachi regions and in Shimane Prefecture, researches on potential for commercializing the bio-ethanol production using rice straw, rice husks, or other feedstock crops are being conducted. |
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3 Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, Current Status on Rice Straw , 2005 |
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3.1.3 Wood-based biomass |
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(1) Potential supply
While sawmill residues (approximately 4.3 million tons produced a year) are mostly recycled as paper pulp materials or energy sources, most of forestry residues (approximately 4.7 million tons/year) including forest thinnings and damaged trees are not efficiently utilized except for a small part of the residue being recycled as pulping material.
Since enforcement of Law concerning the Construction Waste Recycling in 2002, the amount of recycled construction wood wastes has increased from approximately 40% to 70%. Construction wood wastes are recycled as board materials, animal bedding, or energy sources (mostly for direct burning). |
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Table3.6 Estimation of forest resource and forestry residue by prefecture (Top five prefectures) 4 |
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Prefecture
(tons/ha)
top five |
Growing stock
(1000m3) |
Total forested
area (1000ha) |
Forestry
residue
(1000m3/year) |
Dry weight of
forestry residue
(1000tons/year) |
Forestry
residue/forestedland size*
(tons/ha/year) |
| Miyazaki |
117,599 |
590 |
569 |
216 |
0.366 |
| Kumamoto |
104,563 |
466 |
371 |
141 |
0.302 |
| Oita |
89,281 |
457 |
313 |
119 |
0.260 |
| Tochigi |
57,636 |
345 |
200 |
76 |
0.220 |
| Ehime |
79,838 |
401 |
231 |
88 |
0.219 |
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| Total |
3,757,845 |
24,918 |
7,685 |
2,920 |
0.117 (average) |
| Total |
*Figures are for natural forest. The average value for the common artificial forest is estimated at 9 to 10(tons/ha/year). |
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4 Forestry Agency, website/ Miyazaki Prefecture, Report on unused wood-based biomass for planning prospect project of utilizing wood-based biomass、2004 |
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For a given amount of logs brought into a sawmill, a certain rate (48.2%) of mill residue is produced. (Table. 3.7) In Japan, 3.2 million tons (dry weight standard) of sawmill residues are generated annually, and, of these, only 180,000 tons (approximately 5.7%) are burned or discarded. On the other hand, according to the data on residue types generated in sawmills (Table 3.8), rate of the bark generation accounts for 21.4%, and because of difficulty in finding efficient uses other than burning, the utilization of bark is expected. |
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Table3.7 Rate of wood residue generated from sawmills 5 |
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| Rate of wood waste generation per raw material input |
48.2% |
| Rate of burned/disposed wood per generated wood waste |
5.7% |
| Rate of recycled wood per raw material input |
45.4% |
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5 Japan Housing and Wood Technology Center, Report on recycling, waste management technology research, and development project |
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Table3.8 Rate of residue type generated in sawmill 6 |
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Amount generated (m3) |
% |
| Backbsoards |
5,498 |
31.5 |
| Sawdust |
5,452 |
31.2 |
| Bark |
3,740 |
21.4 |
| Trim ends |
1,178 |
6.7 |
| Planer shavings |
1,131 |
6.5 |
| Thin boards |
240 |
1.4 |
| Chipper dust |
221 |
1.3 |
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| Total |
17,460 |
― |
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Bamboo is a suitable feedstock for bio-ethanol production since it has a high content of holocellulose (mixture of cellulose and hemicellulose).
Potential bamboo supply in Kagoshima alone is estimated at 46,000 to 210,000 tons/year. |
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6 Yuji Igami and Koji Murata , Bulletin of the Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute vol.2 No.2 , 2003 |
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Table3.9 Estimated potential bamboo supply 7 |
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| Order |
Prefecture |
Bamboo forest area
(ha) |
Average live weight
(1000wet-t) |
Average wet weight
(1000dry-t) |
| 1 |
Kagoshima |
16,309 |
1,996 |
998 |
| 2 |
Oita |
13,338 |
1,632 |
816 |
| 3 |
Yamaguchi |
11,073 |
1,354 |
677 |
| 4 |
Fukuoka |
11,020 |
1,348 |
674 |
| 5 |
Kumamoto |
10,578 |
1,294 |
647 |
| 6 |
Tottori |
9,719 |
1,252 |
626 |
| 7 |
Chiba |
5,896 |
721 |
360 |
| 8 |
Kyoto |
5,412 |
662 |
331 |
| 9 |
Miyazaki |
4,991 |
610 |
305 |
| 10 |
Okayama |
4,938 |
604 |
3,002 |
| 11 |
Kochi |
4,388 |
536 |
268 |
| 12 |
Shizuoka |
4,185 |
513 |
206 |
| 13 |
Ehime |
3,967 |
485 |
242 |
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Total |
136,081 |
18,633 |
9,316 |
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Precondition: Minimum 3000 to maximum 8000 trees → Average 5000 trees/ha |
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Stem weight 20 to 30 wet-kg/tree → average 25wet-kg(12.5dry-kg)/tree |
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6 Yuji Igami and Koji Murata , Bulletin of the Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute vol.2 No.2 , 2003 |
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Notes: Hokkaido and Aomori are not included in nationwide’s total because of no statistical data available but the influence for total value is negligible. |
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Since bamboo has a 5-year harvest cycle, approximately 3 million tons can be harvested annually in Japan.
Kawasatsu Forest Cooperative (Izumi City, Kagoshima Prefecture) produces 67,000 tons of bamboo products
annually (equivalent to 20,000 kL/year of ethanol). |
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The amount of construction wood waste generated from all over the country is 4.71 million tons (of which 3.21 million tons, or 68%, are recycled), but this includes waste materials unsuitable for recycling such as foreign substances. |
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7 Census on Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2000, Master Plan for utilizing biomass in Chiba |
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Table3.10 Construction wood waste generation and amount recycled 8 |
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| Year |
Construction waste
(10,000 tons) |
Amount recycled
(10,000 tons) |
Recycling rate |
| 2002 |
464 |
284 |
61% |
| 2005 |
471 |
321 |
68% |
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8 Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, Survey on status of construction byproducts, 2005
http://www.mlit.go.jp/kisha/kisha06/01/011208_2_.html |
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Table3.11 Top 10 prefectures for unused forest land, bamboo material supply, mill residue, and construction wood waste 9 |
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Estimated forestry
residue per forest
land area |
Estimated potential
supply of Moso
bamboo |
Estimated amount of
sawmill residue
(bark) |
Estimated amount of
unused construction
waste |
| 1 |
Miyazaki |
Kagoshima |
Hiroshima |
Saitama |
| 2 |
Kumamoto |
Oita |
Hokkaido |
Tokyo |
| 3 |
Oita |
Yamaguchi |
Toyama |
Kanagawa |
| 4 |
Tochigi |
Fukuoka |
Ehime |
Hyogo |
| 5 |
Ehime |
Kumamoto |
Miyazaki |
Miyagi |
| 6 |
Saga |
Tottor |
Fukushima |
Fukushima |
| 7 |
Ibaraki |
Chiba |
Ibaraki |
Osaka |
| 8 |
Miyagi |
Kyoto |
Shizuoka |
Aichi |
| 9 |
Mie |
Miyazaki |
Oita |
Iwate |
| 10 |
Iwate |
Okayama |
Akita |
Ibaraki |
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(2) Uses
Wood-based biomass such as windfall trees and sawmill residues has been used as a feedstock in a demonstrational bio-ethanol production experiment conducted by Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding Co. Ltd, Okayama Prefectural Government and Maniwa City.
In addition wood-based biomass such as construction wood wastes, wood chips, and pruned brunches is used as a feedstock in a bio-ethanol plant performed by Bio-ethanol Japan Kansai Corporation. |
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9 Tomiaki Yamada, Present status and visions of bio-ethanol production in Japan and overseas, 2007 |
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3.1.4 Energy Crops |
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(1) Potential supply
Starch-based crops (cereals and potatoes), sugar-based crops (such as sugarcane), cellulose-based crops (herbs and wood), and oil-based crops (such as rapeseed, sunflower, and soybean) can be named as energy crops.
Since there are a very few cases for the domestic production of energy crops, information on sizes of production-adjusted rice fields and of abandoned farmlands, potential farmlands for energy crops, are indicated here. |
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① Rice Production Adjustment
The total area of production-adjusted rice fields as of 2003 is approximately 1.02 million hectares, of which about 60% has already been used for the cultivation of other crops such as wheat, soybean, and forage. Farmlands potentially available for energy crops are adjustment field, which is maintained as cultivable condition, deposited field, self-maintained field, and year-round land-improvement field. |
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Table3.12 Land uses of production-adjusted rice field (fiscal year 2003) 10 |
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| Land use |
Area
(1,000ha) |
% |
Notes |
| Cropped land |
614 |
60.1 |
Crops such as wheat, soybean, feed crop, vegetable, and fruit trees are cultivated. |
| Landscaping rice field |
9 |
0.9 |
Used for landscaping crops (such as lotus) or school farms. |
| Adjustment field |
47 |
4.6 |
Watered and constantly maintained for rice production. |
| Deposited field |
3 |
0.3 |
Deposited to agricultural cooperative and constantly maintained for cultivation. |
| Self-maintenance field |
64 |
6.3 |
Constantly maintained for cultivation by the farmer. |
| Year-round landimprovement field |
3 |
0.3 |
Land improvement (normally during slack season) taking place during rice farming season. |
| Past record count |
282 |
27.6 |
Farmlands not qualified for subsidy, such as farmland in which the reformation/abolishment has completed and the subsidy period has ended, including orchard. |
| Total |
1,022 |
100.0 |
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② Abandoned Farmland
According to Census on Agriculture and Forestry 2005, summing up all farmer ( total of sales farmer and self-sufficient farmer) and non-farmer having land , Japanese uncultivated lands are approximately 386,000 hectare in area. (Table3.13) |
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10 The Ministry of the Environment, Conference to Promote Utilization of Eco-fuels, Report on the Diffusion of Eco-fuels for Transportation Purpose ,2006 |
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Table3.13 Uncultivated farmlands by region (2005) 11 |
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|
(unit: hectare) |
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|
|
Total |
|
Hokkaido |
Tohoku |
Kanto |
Chubu |
Kinki |
Chugoku |
Shikoku |
Kyushu |
Total
Farmers |
223,372 |
|
9,551 |
47,470 |
44,026 |
39,481 |
14,257 |
21,304 |
12,598 |
34,686 |
Nonfarm
Landowners |
162,419 |
|
9,919 |
23,753 |
31,752 |
28,669 |
11373 |
17,496 |
10,004 |
29,453 |
| Total |
385,791 |
|
19,470 |
71,223 |
75,777 |
68,150 |
25,630 |
38,800 |
22,601 |
64,139 |
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11 Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, Census on agriculture and forestry , 2005 |
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(2) Land use
There are some cases of energy crop cultivations and related projects which include production of energy crops such as high-yielding rice, sorghum, high-biomass sugarcane, studies of features and energy consumption of crop cultivations, and demonstration tests of using these crops as bio-ethanol feedstock.
National Federation of Agricultural Cooperative Associations (JA Zen-Noh) has been carrying out “Demonstration research project on cultivation of rice as bio-ethanol feedstock” since 2006, and produced high-yielding variety of forage rice “Hokuriku 193” on total area of 37 hectares in 2007. 12
In addition “The Rape Flower Project,” a regional program to grow rape flowers, to use them as food oil, to recycle the used oils for producing biodiesel fuels, is becoming popular in various communities in Japan.Reference: The following tables indicate cropping area and crop yield data for edible agricultural products which can be bio-ethanol feedstock. |
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12 National Federation of Agricultural Co-operative Associations, Making the regional energy circulation model of bioethanol derived from rice, 2008 |
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Table3.14 Planted area of agricultural products (ha) |
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|
|
Total |
|
Hokkaido |
Tohoku |
Kanto |
Chubu |
Kinki |
Chugoku |
Shikoku |
Kyushu |
Rice
(exc. Early harvest) |
1,973,000 |
|
116,000 |
434,000 |
271,200 |
332,720 |
1144,750 |
118,900 |
58,800 |
196,920 |
| Wheat |
364,000 |
|
119,400 |
9,570 |
38,086 |
19,599 |
15,125 |
3,980 |
3,880 |
54,396 |
| Potato |
84,500 |
|
56,900 |
5,060 |
5,800 |
4,724 |
1,387 |
1,240 |
640 |
8,769 |
| Sweet potato |
40,700 |
|
19 |
286 |
13,027 |
2,707 |
1,455 |
1,150 |
2,430 |
19,650 |
| Sugar beet |
66,600 |
|
66,600 |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
| Sweet corn |
25,500 |
|
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
| Sugar cane |
21,700 |
|
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
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| |
|
【 source: Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Statistics 】 |
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Table3.15 Crop of agricultural products (tons) |
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|
|
Total |
|
Hokkaido |
Tohoku |
Kanto |
Chubu |
Kinki |
Chugoku |
Shikoku |
Kyushu |
Rice
(exc. Early harvest) |
8,715,000 |
|
603,200 |
2,430,800 |
1,375,381 |
1,767,000 |
725,400 |
592,200 |
281,400 |
939,180 |
| Wheat |
1,105,000 |
|
587,500 |
19,800 |
121,698 |
68,328 |
43,573 |
16,200 |
14,300 |
233,622 |
| Potato |
2,828,000 |
|
2,242,000 |
100,680 |
137,140 |
91,300 |
17,210 |
18,730 |
94,180 |
211,440 |
| Sweet potato |
968,400 |
|
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
19,650 |
| Sugar beet |
4,297,000 |
|
4,297,000 |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
| Sweet corn |
233,000 |
|
986,000 |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
| Sugar cane |
1,310,000 |
|
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
1,310,000 |
|
|
| |
|
【 source: Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Statistics 】 |
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| |
|
*Notes on crop |
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Rice: |
It was harvested from a fixed area size and was weighed the rice grains both satisfying grade 3 of the agricultural product standard and having grain thickness of 1.7 mm or bigger. |
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Vegetables: |
Weights of harvested crops satisfying standards for fresh-eating and processing |
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3.2 Biofuel |
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3.2.1 Bio-ethanol |
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(1) Characteristics
The type of ethanol synthesized from petroleum or natural gas is called synthetic ethanol and the ethanol type produced from biomass by fermentation and distillation method is called bio-ethanol, but the two types are chemically identical. |
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Ethanol characteristics are listed below. 13 |
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- Because of single substance, ethanol does not contain aromatic compounds or sulfur compounds, and it is safer to handle.
- Because of its high octane rathing, the CO2 emission from ethanol combustion is comparatively small.
- Due to its low calorific value, the fuel efficiency per unit volume decreases by 0.3% for every 1% ethanol added.
- Since ethanol-blended gasoline easily separates into water layer (water plus ethanol) and gasoline layer when absorbing a small amount of water, deterioration of the fuel is concerned and additional measures are needed to prevent the water contamination.
- Ethanol blends exceeding a certain ethanol concentration may cause corrosions to vehicle parts when used for conventional vehicles with aluminum for components such as fuel system parts, and hence Quality Maintenance Law regulates the ethanol concentration of blended gasoline as 3% or lower.
- Fuel circulation system parts need to be altered when ethanol-blended gasoline is used, since ethanol affects the swelling degrees of rubber and resin parts.
- When ethanol, an oxygenated compound, is used for conventional vehicles, CO and HC emissions tend to decrease and NOx (nitrogen oxide) emission tends to increase because of leaner air-fuel ratio. Also the cold-temperature engine start increases the aldehydes emission.
- Ethanol itself does not have a high vapor pressure value but the pressure increases by approximately 7 kPa when mixed with gasoline, and an increase in the emission of VOC (volatile organic compound) is observed. To comply the current domestic standard, ethanol must be added to sub-octane gasoline with adjusted vapor pressure.
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In Japan, there are cases of utilizing high biomass sugarcane, molasses, wood-based biomass (such as construction waste, wood chips, and pruned branches), paper waste, food wastes (such as okara, or tofu residue), sorghum, substandard wheat, and unused forest resources as bio-ethanol feedstock in Japan. In recent years, because of needs for the effective biomass utilization and for avoidance of competing with food resources, research and development for the |
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efficient bio-ethanol production using cellulosic biomass feedstock is conducted. |
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13 New Energy Foundation , Text for “Personnel Training Seminar for New Energy” Second Edition , 2007 |
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Table3.16 Potential biomass feedstock for bio-ethanol production in Japan |
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|
Sugar-based feedstock |
Sugarcane |
Efficiently fix solar energy. (Okinawa and Kagoshima) |
Sugar beet
(sugar beet/beet) |
Suitable for cold climate. Produced mainly in Hokkaido as raw material for sugar manufacture. (Hokkaido) |
| Molasses |
Dark brown and viscous liquid made by crystallization of concentrated raw sugar from sugarcane or sugar beet juice.
Beet molasses produced in Hokkaido are primarily used as animal feed. Molasses produced in Okinawa are used as ethanol feedstock or animal feed. |
| Sorghum (Kouryan) |
Suitable for temperate to subtropical climate and more drought tolerant than corn. |
| Fruit juice syrup |
Juice containing 8% sugar and bitterness are extracted from leftover orange peels used for juice making. This is concentrated to 40% sugar content for ethanol fermentation. This process is used at Japan Alcohol Corporation’s plant. |
| Whey |
Currently being studied in Japan |
Starch-based feedstock |
Cereals |
Corn |
Sweet corn (food), dent corn (fodder) and other variety. (Hokkaido and Miyazaki) |
| Wheats |
Wheat, two-rowed barley, six-rowed barley, and naked barley. Wheat is most produced of these. (Hokkaido) |
| Rice (husks) |
About 300 Japonica varieties are grown in Japan.
(Hokkaido and Niigata) |
Potatoes |
Sweet potato |
(Kagoshima and Ibaraki) |
| Potato |
Production in Hokkaido accounts for approximately 60% of total domestic production. (Hokkaido and Nagasaki) |
Cellulose-based feedstock |
Wood-based biomass |
Unused forest resource |
Forestry residues |
|
| Forest thinnings |
|
| Sawmill residue |
|
| Bamboo |
High content of cellulose and hemicellulose. The potential bamboo supply is estimated at 46,000 to 211,000 tons/year in Kagoshima Prefecture alone. |
| Construction residues |
Wood residues from house construction and demolishing. |
| Used papers |
|
| Rice straw and rice husks |
|
| Pasture |
(Hokkaido, Kagoshima, and Iwate) |
| Seaweed |
Research group, consisting of private companies and universities, has started study on ethanol producing technology using seaweed as the feedstock since fiscal year 2008. |
| Others |
Food waste |
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*(Prefecture name) indicates the major producing region. |
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(2) Production capacity and production size
Amount of bio-ethanol manufactured in Japan during 2007 is estimated at approximately 1,600 kL according to domestic demonstration projects, and the number of ethanol manufacture projects, and therefore the amount of ethanol produced, is expected to increase in the future.
Three other bio-ethanol plants, currently under construction, are scheduled to be in operation in 2009, and the expected total production will be 31,000 kL/year if productions from these plants are added. |
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(3) Present situation use and introduction
Domestic projects on manufacture and use of bio-ethanol are at the stage of transition from technology development to demonstration test. Although there exist over a dozen major cases including past projects and projects starting to operate on 2009, these cases are demonstration projects funded by related government ministries and agencies such as Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry, New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization, Ministry of the Environment, and Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, except for a single case of commercial plant. Also there are some projects with difficulties in the feedstock supply and the E3 fuel distribution. |
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Figure 3.4 Bio-ethanol Fuel Demonstration Projects 14 |
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14New and renewable energy group, strategy and industry research unit, The institute of energy economics, Japan, Biomass Energy in Japan, 2007 |
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Table 3.17 Organization and production scale of domestic projects of bio-ethanol manufacturing |
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| Region |
Organization |
Production Scale |
| Sakai City, Osaka |
Bio-ethanol Japan Kansai Corporation |
First year: 1,400 kL/year
After expansion of capacity :
4,000 kL/year (planned) |
Maniwa City,
Okayama Prefecture |
Okayama Prefectural Government,
Maniwa city,
Mitsui engineering and shipbuilding Co.,LTD. |
26.8 kL/year (315 L/day) |
Miyakojima City City,
Okinawa Prefecture |
Ryuseki Corporation |
90 kL/year |
Iejima Island,
Okinawa Prefecture |
Asahi Breweries, Ltd.
National Agriculture and Bio-oriented Research Organization Kyushu Okinawa agricultural research center |
1.1 kL/year |
Kitakyushu City,
Fukuoka Prefecture |
Nippon Steel Corporation |
397 kL/day |
Shimizu-cho,
Hokkaido Prefecture |
Hokkaido Bio-ethanol Corporation
(A new company jointly owned by the federations of agricultural cooperatives in Hokkaido and others) |
15,000 kL/year
(planned) |
Tomakomai City,
Hokkaido Prefecture |
Oenon Holdings Inc.Hokkaido biofuel regional council, Hokkaido Intellect Tank |
15,000 kL/year
(planned) |
Niigata City,
Niigata Prefecture |
JA Zen-Noh group (National Federation of agricultural corporative associations) |
1,000 kL/year
(planned) |
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| |
|
(4) Fuel Supply System
There are two ways of supplying bio-ethanol. One is a method of mixing bio-ethanol directly to gasoline (up to 3vol%) and the other is a method of producing ETBE which is then blended with gasoline (up to 8vol%) |
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①Bio-ethanol Supplied as E3
A means of using the existing gasoline distribution system for the nationwide E3 fuel distribution and a means of supplying E3 in a localized independent system are considered. In the conventional distribution system, a part of the gasoline produced at refineries are shipped directly to individual gas stations, however the majority are shipped first to regional storage terminals (237 terminals all over the country) before reaching various gas stations (50,000 stations all over the country) for consumer supply.15 |
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15 Working group for deliberation on utilizing ETBE, Petroleum subcommittee of the Advisory Committee on Natural Resources and Energy, handout of second committee, Research Report regarding possibility of importing ethanol from Brazil, 2005 |
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Since a small amount of water causes a phase separation for ethanol-blended gasoline, the blending process needs to be at the location as close to the individual gas stations as possible, that is, storage terminals, to reduce the chances of contamination by water.
Many of the demonstration test drives for E3 fuel are performed at the same time with the experimental ethanol production. However, because of the decision made by the Petroleum Association of Japan to expand the introduction of ETBE, the supply of E3 fuel is not expanding.
As of February 2008, domestic gas stations retailing E3 fuel are 6 stations in Osaka prefecture and 4 stations in Miyakojima City. |
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②Bio-ethanol Supplied as ETBE |
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3.2.2 ETBE |
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(1) Characteristics
ETBE is produced by mixing ethanol and isobutene (a byproduct of petroleum refining process), and it is considered as biofuel if biomass-based ethanol is used. |
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The following points are characteristics of ETBE.13
- Since ETBE, like ethanol, is a single substance, it does not contain aromatic compounds or sulfur compounds.
- ETBE is used as high octane material because of its high octane rating. Compared with ethanol, ETBE has smaller oxygen content, hence the decline in the fuel efficiency can be reduced to about a half of the efficiency decline for ethanol.
- Although the ethanol blending process requires a caution for the water contamination, the water absorption is not a problem with the water-insoluble ETBE which can be handled as an ordinary gasoline base material.
- Because of the low vapor pressure, ETBE does not require a concern for the compositions of the gasoline, which needs to be adjusted if it is blended with ethanol, and can be used in the existing infrastructures or machines without any alternations.
- Compared to ethanol, which can be mixed directly to gasoline, ETBE requires additional energy for the synthesis of ethanol and isobutylene.
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(2) Production capacity and production quantity
Currently ETBE is not being produced in Japan.
Nippon Oil Corporation has a plan to remodel their facility located in the Negishi Refinery into an ETBE plant and to manufacture domestic ETBE using imported bio-ethanol by fiscal year 2009. |
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(3) Present situation status of use and introduction
Japanese oil industry has been retailing ETBE-blended gasoline, called “bio-gasoline (bio-ETBE blended gasoline),” at 50 gas stations in the Tokyo metropolitan area since the April of 2007, under the “2007 project for introduction of biomass-based fuel,” assisted by the Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry. 16 |
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(4) System of fuel supply
“Japan Biofuels Supply LLP,” a cooperative partnership for import, formed by ten petroleum wholesale companies on January 2007, imported ETBE from France for general retailing purpose for the first time in Japan.
The “Bio-gasoline,” currently being sold in the Tokyo metropolitan area, is 7%-ETBE blended regular gasoline produced from the imported ETBE. |
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The launch of “Bio-gasoline” retail sales at 50 locations in the Tokyo metropolitan area (demonstration project for fuel distribution) and the plan to gradually expand the retail sales were the business line made by Japanese petroleum industry to steadily introduce the “Bio-gasoline” aiming at a full-scale introduction in 2010. The number of ETBE retailing stations will be expanded to 100 stations and the full-scale introduction of the fuel is scheduled for 2010, along with the establishment of domestic ETBE production system. |
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In addition, on February 2008, Marubeni Corporation began to import ETBE from a Brazilian petro-chemical company, COPESUL and first shipped 6,500 kL to Japan Biofuels Supply LLP17. |
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 |
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Figure 3.6 Japan Petroleum Association’s outlook for biogasoline marketing16 |
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Table 3.18 Partners of Japan Biofuels Supply LLP 18 |
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Idemitsu Kosan Co., Ltd.
Tonen General Sekiyu K.K.
Taiyo Oil Co.,Ltd.
Fuji Oil Company, Ltd.
Cosmo Oil Co., Ltd.
Kyokuto Petroleum Industries Ltd.
Kyushu Oil Co., Ltd.
Showa Shell Sekiyu K.K
Nippon Oil Corporation
Japan Energy Corporation |
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18Japan Biofuels Supply LLP, website http://www.jbsl.jp/index.html |
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Table 3.19 Web Sites related to ETBE |
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3.2.3 Biodiesel fuel |
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(1) Characteristics
“Biodiesel fuel" has been not precisely defined. It is a generic term for light oil alternative fuel made by chemical processing of oils such as used cooking oil and virgin vegetable oil. One of the most commonly used biodiesel fuels is a liquid fuel that has low viscosity and flash point due to |
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|
methyl-etherification of vegetable oil with methanol, and the properties are similar to those of light oil called Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME).
Mixtures of light oil with 5%, 20%, and 100% of biodiesel are called B5, B20, and B100, respectively. Biodiesel fuel is sometimes referred as “BDF,” the registered trademark of Someya Shoten Ltd. in Japan, and usually called FAME in overseas. |
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The characteristics of biodiesel fuel are as follows. |
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| |
|
- Selection of raw materials is important because their properties influence greatly on the quality of fuel. Oils and fats high in containing saturated fatty acid are likely to be crystallized at low temperatures and therefore affect fluidity of the fuel.
- Alkali catalyst and glycerin in refining process, triglyceride and methanol in raw materials, and remaining reaction intermediates cause deterioration of quality.
- Biodiesel fuel is oxygenated compound containing neither aromatic compounds nor sulfur compound so that CO, HC, and particulate matters in exhaust gas drastically decrease but nitrogen oxide (NOx) show slight increase.
- Effective utilization of glycerin generated as a by-product in refining process should be considered.
- Despite measures for quality design such as controlling impurity and adding antioxidant, it is cut out for long-term storage because of its lower oxidative stability compared to light oil and tendency to adsorb moisture.
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(2) Capacity and Amount of Production
Autonomies, NPOs, and enterprises are engaged in biodiesel fuel production nationwide, but most of them are small scale approaches. Annual domestic production is estimated at 5000kL. |
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(3) Innovation and Usage
Biodiesel fuel made from used cooking oil was first introduced in Aito town, Shiga in 1994 on a trial basis, and today hundreds of communities have produced it. |
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Table 3.20 Examples of biodiesel fuel production area, Operating body, Production scale 19 |
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| |
|
| Prefecture |
Municipality |
Operating body |
Production |
| Hokkaido |
Asahikawa City |
Pekalt Co., Ltd |
4,680L/y |
| Sapporo City |
Hokusei Co., Ltd |
― |
| Abashiri City |
The Sesame Co., Ltd |
― |
| Tomakomai City |
TSocial welfare corporation, Ryokusei no Sato |
20,000L/y |
| Miyagi |
Sendai City |
Cooperative association,
Sendai Cleaning Public Corporation |
460 L/y |
| Ishimaki City |
Social welfare corporation, Ishimaki Shoshin-kai |
24,000L/y |
| Yamagata |
Kaneyama town |
Kaneyama New Energy
Practice Research Group |
4,500L/y |
| Yamagata City |
NPO Chiin |
87.5L/d |
| Fukushima |
Kitashiobara Village |
Kitashiobara Village |
13,200L/y |
| Iwaki City |
Trust Kikaku Co., Ltd |
7,257,600L/y |
| Sukagawa City |
Himawari Co., Ltd |
390L/d |
| Chiba |
Ichihara City |
Chiba Sanko Transportation |
600L/d |
| Kashiwa City |
NPO Sekken no Machi |
3,400L/d |
| Tokyo |
Sumida ku |
U’s Corporation |
― |
| Chofu- City |
SHiDAX CORPORATION |
― |
| Niigata |
Nagaoka City |
NPO Chiiki Junkan Network |
― |
| Niigata City |
Asunaro Welfare working Place |
― |
| Kashiwazaki City |
Kashiwazaki Tourism Cooperative Association |
24,000L/y |
| Ishikaewa |
Matsuto City |
Meidensha Co., Ltd Hokuriku Branch |
― |
| Kanazawa City |
Kita Shoji |
― |
| Komatsu City |
Komatsu City |
20,400L/y |
| Nagano |
Matsumoto City |
Chushin social welfare association |
9,600L/y |
| Ueda City |
NPO Ueda Wide Area Civil business Network |
3,000L/y |
| Gifu |
Takayama City |
Takayama City |
― |
| Yamagata City |
Yamagata City |
― |
| Kamiishizu Town |
Kamiishizu Town |
1200L/y |
| Nakatsugawa City |
Nakatsugawa City |
9,800L/y |
| Ogaki City |
Ogaki City |
11,000L/y |
| Shizuoka |
Shizuoka City |
Shizuoka Trucking Association. |
― |
| Iwata City |
Tokai Chemical Co., Ltd |
449,466L/y |
| Aichi |
Isshiki City |
Isshiki City |
11,050L/y |
| Tahara City |
Tahara City |
― |
| Toyohashi City |
Aicello Chemical Co., Ltd |
90L/d |
| Mie |
Ise City |
Komatsu Mie Co., Ltd |
53,560L/y |
| Inabe City |
Inabe City |
24,000L/y |
| Kiinagashima Town |
Kiinagashima Town |
7,658L/y |
| Fujiwara Town |
Fujiwara Town |
2,600L/y |
| Shiga |
Otsu City |
Shiga Prefecture |
― |
| Higashiomi City |
Higashiomi City |
2,400L/y |
| Takashima City |
Social Working Center Iris |
9000/y |
| Koka City |
Mizuguchi Technos Co., Ltd |
21,600L/y |
| Omihachiman City |
Social Working Center Ikiiki |
80L/d |
| Toyosato Town |
Aburatou Shoji Co., Ltd |
33,600L/y |
| Higashiomi City |
Higashiomi City |
― |
| Takashima City |
Biwako Bio Labo Co., Ltd |
― |
| Ryuoh Town |
Ryuoh Town |
― |
| Kyoto |
Kyoto City |
Revo International Co., Ltd |
1,500,000L/y |
| Kyoto City |
1,500,000L/y |
| Osaka |
Osaka City |
Eco System |
54,000L/y |
|
|
| |
|
| Hyogo |
Kobe City |
Goshobo |
― |
| Goshiki Town |
Goshiki Town |
3,100L/y |
| Awaji City |
Awaji City |
― |
| Itami City |
Itami City |
22,800L/y |
| Tottori |
Iwami Town |
NPO Iwami Active company |
4,000L/y |
| Sakaiminato City |
Sakaiminato City |
7,437L/y |
| Shimane |
Izumo City |
Izumo City |
19,000L/y |
| Masuda City |
Masuda City |
252,000L/y |
| Matsue City |
NPO Hiikawa Watershed Environment Network |
20,022L/y |
| Matsue City |
20,000L/y |
| Ohnan Town |
Teramoto Kensetsu Co., Ltd |
108,000L/y |
| Okayama |
Maniwa City |
Okayama Prefecture Chubu Environmental Institution Association |
9,600L/y |
| Tamano City |
Tamano City |
2,400L/y |
| Kasaoka City |
Kasaoka City |
― |
| Kurashiki City |
Prefectural Mizushima Industrial High School |
― |
| Kurashiki City |
12,000L/y |
| Niimi City |
Niimi City |
6000L/y |
| Hiroshima |
Hiroshima City |
Frontier Japan co., ltd |
― |
| Kitahiroshima Town |
INE OASA（NPO） |
3,000L/y |
| Yamaguchi |
Yamaguchi City |
Yamaguchi City |
7,200L/y |
| Tokushima |
Yoshinogawa City |
Yoshinogawa City School Lunch Center |
2,880L/y |
| Kagawa |
Takase Town |
Social welfare corporation Takase-sou |
― |
| Ehime |
Uwajima City |
Uwajima City |
― |
| Matsuyama City |
Daiki Co., Ltd |
21,000L/d |
| Kochi |
Sukumo City |
Sukumo Jusanen |
100L/d |
| Toyo Town |
Toyo Town |
― |
| Fukuoka |
Kitakyusyu City |
Kyusyu Yamaguchi Oil Business Cooperative Association |
9,900L/y |
| Chikushino City |
Clean Chikushino Co., Ltd |
20,000L/y |
| Kurume City |
Kurume City |
75,600L/y |
| Saga |
Saga City |
Saga City |
76,800L/y |
| Mitsuse Village |
NPO Natural Energy Practice Network |
― |
| Imari City |
Imari Hachigame Plan |
12.000L/y |
| Kumamoto |
Hondo City |
Hondo City |
16,900L/y |
| Oita |
Kunisaki City |
Kunisaki Eiseisha Co., Ltd |
12,000L/y |
| Saiki City |
Saiki City |
― |
| Kagoshima |
Osaki Town |
So Recycle Center |
― |
| Yaku Town |
Yaku Town |
15,500L/y |
| Kirishima City |
Kokubun Hayato Eisei Kosha Co., Ltd |
48,968L/y |
| Okinawa |
Nishihara Town |
Murayoshi Gas Pressure Welding Industry Co., Ltd |
72,265L |
|
|
| |
|
19New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization、Guidebook for Introduction of Biomass Energy, Second Edition, 2005
Headquarters of Biomass information, website : http://www.biomass-hq.jp/precedent/list3_3.html |
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| |
Table 3.21 Reference of Biodiesel Fuel Manufacture in Japan |
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① Trend in Innovation and Usage
51 cases of 88 cases of domestic biodiesel manufacturing introduced in Guidebook to Introduction of Biomass Energy the Second Edition reported with annual production are sorted by the amount and operation body in Figure 1. |
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 |
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| |
Figure 3.7 Trend in annual production of biodiesel fuel by operating body |
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【Source: New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization, Guidebook for Introduction of Biomass Energy, Second Edition, 2005】 |
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Most of the enterprises manufacture more than 11 kL per year, and among them, 17% does 101 to 1000 kL and another 17 % does more than 1001 kL. It is similarly that more than half of anatomies manufacture 11 to 100kL, but 40% of has less than 10kL or less. Only some of them seem to be capable to of mass production. None of the private parties and NPOs produce more than 100 kL/yr of biodiesel fuel, and it suggests that their production are tend to be small in size. |
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②Collection of Used cooking as Raw Material
In general, virgin vegetable oil such as canola oil and soybean oil, animal grease, and used cooking oil are all considered as raw materials of biodiesel fuel, which, however, is mainly manufactured from used cooking oil collected from companies and households by following methods. |
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| |
Table 3.22 Method for Collecting Used Cooking Oil 20 |
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| |
|
| Method |
Content |
Collection from households |
Permanent basecollection method |
Collecting boxes are placed several places in a collection area and used cooking oil is collected approximately once a month.
・ resident’s association halls or the City hall
・ stations
・ in front of houses of leaders
Time and date of the collection is free at some level and citizens can access easily. |
| Base collection method |
Specify the time and date. A collection trader brings containers every time and collects used cooking oil.
It is requested residents‘ association’s presence. |
Existing route
collection method |
Used cooking oil is collected when usual garbage is picked up. People have to use closed containers when they place the used cooking oil. There are some examples that an autonomy etc. distributes closed containers. |
Collection from enterprises |
Direct Bring-in |
Enterprises bring used cooking oil to biodiesel fuel manufacturing plants directly. |
Existing route
collection method |
Collect used cooking oil through existing route of a collection trader and the trader brings it to biodiesel fuel manufacturing plants directly. |
Permanent base
collection method |
Each enterprise has a collecting box or several enterprises have it collectively and used cooking oil is collected once a 2weeks or once a month. |
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20New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization、Guidebook for Introduction of Biomass Energy, Second Edition, 2005 |
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| |
Table 3.23 Types of Base Collection Method and the Features21 |
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| |
|
| Base Type |
How to Collect |
Features |
Conven
-ience |
Quality
Control |
Advantage |
Disadvantage |
| Region |
at cooperators’ houses |
△ |
◎ |
It ensures the quality of collected oil. |
Collection is limited in time. |
| Communal facilities |
at public buildings
e.g. community centers |
○ |
○ |
Collecting stations are comprehensive to residents. |
Collection may be limited in time. |
Store |
at stores
e.g. supermarkets |
◎ |
△ |
It is readily acceptable to residents as an extension of collection of milk cartons and plastic trays. |
Managements of quality and fire prevention come on stores. |
| Gas Station |
at gas stations |
◎ |
◎ |
It is facile and secures fire-prevention management. |
― |
| Dump Site |
at dump sites
e.g. oil in containers picked up by garbage trucks |
○ |
△ |
It is economical because of utilization of existing garbage collection system. |
Management of quality and fire prevention are required
It costs to dispose containers |
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21Environment and Lifestyle Department, Miyagi Prefectural Government, Guidebook for Biodiesel Fuel, 2006 |
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Table3.24 Result of Past Case of Used Cooking Oil Collection from Households22 |
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| |
|
| Municipality |
Collected Amount per Household
(L/month/household) |
Remarks |
| Kyoto City |
0.017 |
130,000L/year, January 2005, 653,860 households |
| Matsue City |
0.085～0.17 |
250-500L/month, 2,925 households |
| Joetsu City |
0.026 |
8,978L/23month, 15,000 households |
| Aito Town |
0.11～0.14 |
150-200L/month, 1,400 households |
| Fujiwara Town |
0.2 |
2,162 households |
| Kii-nagashima Town |
0.116 |
4,514 households, average between April-September of 2003 |
| Miyama Town |
0.086 |
4,071 households, average between April-September of 2003 |
| Futami Town |
0.16 |
2,997 households, average between July-September of 2003 |
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22The Ministry of the Environment, Conference to Promote Utilization of Eco-fuels, Report on the Diffusion of Eco-fuels for Transportation Purpose with partial corrections, 2006 |
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(4) Supply
Manufacturing plants have produced and supplied biodiesel fuel to surrounding areas, and as shown below, biodiesel fuel is utilized differently by operating bodies. |
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- Enterprise: used for own diesel vehicles, or for sale
- Municipality: used for official vehicles such as garbage truck and bus in the district
- Private party and NPO: used for diesel vehicles owned by enterprises, used in the area or district
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Some biodiesel fuels are 100% biodiesel, and some are mixed with a certain rate of light oil, and the latter is subject of taxation. The property of well-managed biodiesel fuel is similar to one of commercially available light oil, and additional processing is normally not necessary to blend it with the light oil. |
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Biodiesel Bus with B20 run by a Private Company in Shiga |
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【Source: Shiga Prefecture Official Website】 |
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Biodiesel fuel causes swelling of rubber material but relatively small effect on corrosion of metallic used for fuel tank, which does not have to be replaced specially for utilization of biodiesel. |
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Figure 3.8 Flow of Manufacturing and Delivery of Biodiesel Fuel |
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3.2.4 Black Liquor |
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(1) Characteristics
Black liquor is an organic effluent discharged in the Kraft process to convert wood into pulp. It is a mere by-product but recovered to be used as fuel in the pulping process. As it makes up 31% of energy supplied in the paper industry in Japan, close to 100% of the black liquor has been utilized as energy effectively and efficiently. |
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The characteristics of black liquor are as follows. |
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- It is composed of primary components of wood such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, and alkali as inorganic chemical used for pulping.
- The higher heating value is approximately 12.6MJ/kg-dry, which is enough to cover energy necessary to pulp manufacturing plants.
- NOx (i.e. nitrogen oxide) effluent level is low, so it enables to reduce loads on effluent treatment.
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(2) Capacity and Amount of Production
It is not manufactured for productive purpose. There are 18 manufacturers and 39 manufacturing plants of wood pulp in Japan today, and the amount of black liquor generated there is estimated to be 14 million ton by dry matter weight per year. |
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(3) Innovation and Usage
According to Annual Report on Consumption of Oil and Other Resources Statistics by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, approximately 14 million ton by dry matter weight of black liquor has been consumed in Japan, which suggests nearly 100% of the black liquor generated in pulping process is recycled as fuel in manufacturing plants. |
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Table 3.25 Transition of Consumption of Black Liquor23 |
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| Year |
Black Liquor Consumed
(1000 ton by bone-dry weight) |
| 2004 |
14,505 |
| 2005 |
14,073 |
| 2006 |
13,962 |
| 2007 |
14,279 |
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23The Ministry of Economy, Technology, and Industry, Annual Total of Petroleum Consumption Statistics Monthly. 2007 |
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(4) Supply
Black liquor is collected in pulping process, condensed, and then delivered to a recovery boiler to provide fuel. Steam generated in the boiler is also turned into heat and electric power in the manufacturing plants. |
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3.2.5 Others |
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(1) SVO
SVO, i.e. straight vegetable oil, refers to unprocessed used cooking oil directly utilized as burning fuel. Some precedents in Japan reported the use of SVO blended with auto fuel or kerosene, but this method is not widely employed from standpoints of the properties such as viscosity and low-temperature characteristics. Instead, used cooking oil is used to produce biodiesel fuel. Application of SVO requires diesel vehicles to changes in specification of the engine, for example,addition of fuel filter, oily water separator, and fuel heating system. To facilitate the start up, SVO should be maintained to be highly fluid by heating in each section. |
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(2) BTL
Liquefied fuel such as Fischer Tropsch (FT) synthetic oil, methanol, and dimethylether obtained by synthesis of gas generated from biomass are collectively called Biomass-To-Liquid (BLT). Middle distillate constituting 65 to 85% of FT synthetic oil can be utilized in mixture with light oil, and BLT in a narrower sense refers to the mixed fuel of biomass-derived FT synthetic oil. In Japan, BLT is still under research and development today to put it into practical use. |
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The characteristic of BTL (in narrow definition) are as follows. |
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- Wide range of biomass can be applied to the transduction by way of gasification which, unlike ethanol fermentation, does not require the quality management on raw materials.
- The property after gas synthesis depends on catalyst and reaction condition, but it is regarded to be equivalent to Gas-To-Liquid (GLT) products.
- Although its lubricity and density are lower compared to petroleum, it is free from aromatic compounds and sulfur compound and confirmed to reduce particulate matters in exhaust gas.
- t is a hydrocarbon like petroleum-based diesel and does not require any change in existing distribution system and burning appliances for utilization.
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Figure 3.9 BTL made from Biomass-derived Syngas |
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(3) Second Generation Biodiesel Fuel (Bio Hydrofined Diesel: BHD)
Bio Hydrofined Diesel (BHD), also known as “second generation biodiesel fuel,” is still under research and development in Japan. Nippon Oil Corporation and Toyota Motor Corporation have undertaken joint research on hydrogenolysis processing toward practical use of BHD. In October, 2007, hybrid buses run on light oil containing 10% of BHD developed in the collaboration have been introduced on a trial basis and will be operated until March, 2008. 24 |
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24Toyota Motor Corporation, website, News release, Sep.21.2007
http://www.toyota.co.jp/jp/news/07/Sep/nt07_0909.html |
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Figure 3.10 Overview of Hydrogenolysis System |
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The characteristics of BHD are as follows. |
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- Side products of the hydrogenolysis are all recyclable as fuel.
- Similar to GTL light oil, BHD is resistant to oxidative deterioration and compatible with light oil at a high rate.
- Its cetane number is higher than light oil.
- It contains few aromatic compounds and sulfur compound which causes PM (particulate matter).
- It is easy to adjust the fluidity at low temperature. (Pour-point range: -30 to 5℃)
- It excels in storage stability.
- It can be produced from fat and oil, including highly saturated animal fat and oil that are tricky to be utilized as biodiesel fuel.
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(4) Biomethanol 25
Natural gas is a commonly used as raw material for methanol, but it can also be produced from carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, or hydrogen arisen in gasification of biomass. To name a representative case, SVZ of Germany has industrialized the production of the biomass-based methanol, and two instances of the methanol synthesis have been reported in Japan. |
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25Sakai and others, Bio-liquid fuels, NTS, 2007 |
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Characteristics of methanol are as follows.26 |
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- It is free from sulfur and aromatic compounds, high in octane number, fast in burning velocity, and therefore excellent as fuel for gasoline engine; on the other hand, it is low in heating value due to high oxygen content in molecules.
- Since it inflicts heavier damages to combustion devises than ethanol, existing components for fuel circulation and auto-parts need to be replaced.
- Wide range of biomass can be applied to the transduction by way of gasification which, unlike ethanol fermentation, does not require quality management on raw materials.
It is toxic.
- Absolute methanol is producible while moisture content of ethanol does not fall below about 0.4% no matter how refined.
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26Ryo Hinoyama, Hokkaido Forest Products Research Institute, Liquid fuels from biomass, July 2007 |
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Figure 3.11 Methanol made from Biomass-derived Syngas |
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(5) Biobutanol 27
Most of butanol is currently made from petroleum. Another method of butanol production is fermentation of carbohydrate by microorganism called acetone-butanol fermentation, which generates butanol, acetone, and ethanol accounting for 26%, 10.5%, and 2.7% of the glucose yield, respectively.
The acetone-butanol fermentation had been industrialized since the early 20th century not only in Japan but worldwide, however, with the development of petrochemical industry, the mean of butanol production was shifted to synthesis from petroleum and eventually vanished in 1960s. Growth of biotechnology and rise in biofuel today has drawn renewed attention and now in under intense study. |
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Characteristics of butanol are as follows. |
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- The compatibility with water is lower than ethanol, which avoids quality issues due to water incorporation.
- The heating value is equivalent to those of gasoline and 30% higher than ethanol.
- The volatility is lower compared to gasoline and ethanol.
- It is applicable to existing infrastructure of gasoline as for transportation.
- It is compatible with gasoline at an arbitrary rate, which can be utilized without improvement of engine.
- It is also compatible with light oil.
- By blending with biodiesel fuel, ignition it derives improvement of ignitability and depression effect on black smoke.
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27Shindo and others, Bio-liquid fuels, NTS, 2007 / Ryo Hinoyama, Hokkaido Forest Products Research Institute, Liquid fuels from biomass, July 2007 / The Ministry of the Environment, Fifth Conference to Promote Utilization of Eco-fuels, Approaches to Eco-fuels for Transportation Purpose in foreign countries, 2007 |
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